Ancient Greek Life, Warfare and the Leagues.
Greek Life.
Greece at the beginning of the Persian Wars.
The concept of “Greece” was unknown to contemporaries at the time of the period in question. Greece was not unified by any stretch of the imagination, nor was “Greek” even considered one race. The traditional way of splitting up the Greeks was through the three main races; Dorian, Ionian and Corinthian. For ease, it is best to think of “Doric” as Sparta and her allies during the Peloponnesian Wars (Being the Peloponnesus, Boeotia, Megara, Macedonia), “Ionic” as Athens and her allies (Mainly Athens and almost every Island in the Aegean and Ionian seas), and Corinth as the city of Corinth on the isthmus (Who was Sparta’s ally during the Peloponnesian War) and its various colonies, such as Corcyra (now Corfu), Epidamnus and various others. The Hellenic peoples, however, did share a few traits; they all spoke the same language and all saw themselves as the only civilised society in the world – the modern meaning of the word barbarian emerged from this fact, however in the beginning, it only meant “Not-Greek”.
As above stated, the Greeks did not see themselves as a united country, nor even peoples. Dialects and even some language differences occurred between these three main types of Greek.
Image 1; the different styles of Greek columns were based on the racial differences between peoples.
As shown in image 1, the effect of the differences in Greek culture can still be seen today and is the best way to show the difference between the Greek states.
Athens.
According to legend, Athens had been settled by the King Cecrops, an Ionian. Attica, where Athens is based had protection from a mountain range, which allowed them to be safe following the Doric invasion. Holland suggests that the Athenians took pride in the fact that they had “sprung from the earth” of Attica.
In terms of mythology, the Athenians had no ties to the famous Trojan heroes of Menelaus, Achilles or Diomedes like Sparta or Corinth or Argos had. In such a respect, and indeed economically and militarily, the Athenians were barely a second-rate power in the Hellenic world, the aforementioned Corinth, Argos, Thebes, Macedon, and especially Sparta took the title.
Up until the 5th century, Athens was essentially ruled by a line of Kings, until Peisistratus was overthrown with the aid of the Spartan King Cleomenes. After this, a man named Cleisthenes established the world’s first Democracy. Such a Democracy is a far cry from today’s modern ones, and the Athenians probably wouldn’t recognise it, and vice versa. Male citizens of Athens would cast their vote on every single issue at hand as opposed to having representatives in a Parliament. Today, we call it Direct Democracy. The Athenians would also vote on the Generals that would lead them to war, speakers of the assembly etc.
The Athenians were not necessarily known for being a highly religious people (For contrast, the Spartans refused to fight with the Athenians at Marathon due to a religious festival.), instead, their legacy denotes from their love of Philosophy, rhetoric and debate. Socrates, Plato and, for the most part, Aristotle spent their life in Athens. While all three of these men would be alive immediately after (or sometime after in Aristotle’s case) Athens’ defeat in the Peloponnesian Wars, showing that the Athenian defeat did not mean the abolition of such a culture. However, Athens even before then through Pre-Socratics had a deep culture in philosophy. While the Peloponnesian Wars would spell the end for Athenian military dominance, it did not spell the end for its culture, perhaps even improving it as it was said that the period around and after these wars were of great introspection for Athens.
Sparta.
For centuries, Sparta had been the Greek hegemon, the most powerful of all the Greek City States, and one of the oldest. It sat on the Peloponnesus (see map) meaning it had a natural defence through the Isthmus of Corinth. The city-state itself had good geographical defences with mountains and rivers.
Sparta saw no use in philosophy, nor in building landmarks to be beautiful or to last (This can be seen through the Doric columns being the least aesthetically pleasing of the designs, and no famous Spartan landmarks being part of the world’s memory of Greece, unlike the Parthenon in Athens), they were deeply religious and their calendar was filled with festivals like the Carneia. They were deeply scared of the Gods and how they affected the world around them. In the Peloponnesian Wars, during one of King Agis’ raids on Attica farmland, an earthquake hit Sparta and immediately the King turned his army around. Clearly, Agis thought the Gods did not want the Spartans to perform the raid, and to go against the Gods would lead to the ruin of the Spartan people.
Contrary to popular belief, Spartan society was not run by a single monarch, despite the “King” prefix. In Sparta, there were always two Kings sat on a throne. Both also served as Generals, so when one King went to war, the other would always stay in Sparta and administer the city. Sparta also had a council of Elders, called Ephors. These would act more like Magistrates, sorting and organising domestic policies. Where the Kings where the Generals, the Ephors can be seen as the Governing body of Sparta.
In the 6th century, Sparta invaded many areas in the Peloponnesus, and established the Peloponnesian league, the agriculturally rich Messenia was to become a Spartan territory, and its peoples Helots (essentially slaves). Sparta had essentially taken control of all of the Peloponnesus, except for their old enemy; Argos. For ease, I shall refer to Sparta’s territory in the Peloponnesus as if they owned the whole region, and refer to the areas Argos owned simply by its mother cities name. This invasion and subjugation would change Spartan and Greek life forever. For, perhaps without it, Greece would not have been able to survive the Persian invasion.
The enslavement of the Helots enabled the Spartans to put them to work across all their territories in the Peloponnesus. This freed up the native Spartan population for work. The Spartan Kings decided to bring all males into a Spartan army, train them to be the perfect soldiers. And so began warrior race of the Spartans – the most fearsome warriors in all of history. Spartan babies would be inspected by elders, if the elders found any “defects” on the child, they would be left in the mountains to die. Spartan children would enter the academy at around aged 8, and be trained into the perfect, subservient soldier. Such a society had been mythologised today by Hollywood through films like 300, but Spartan society was a brutal one, with children being whipped in front of a statue of Artemis – many children died. What was left, were the perfect, strong, capable and most importantly, almost unfeeling soldier. To further this culture, the idea of sacrificing life for Sparta was extremely common. Many Spartans would see their deaths as necessary so that Sparta could live on. This is why only Spartan males would get a grave if they died in battle, and Spartan females if they died in childbirth.
Women too were treated differently in Sparta to most others. While Athenian women were seen as the classic medieval “property” of the male culture in Athens; Spartan women had almost the same political rights as men. The glory of Sparta was the central axiom to this Cities culture, and because strong were desired to birth and raise strong male and female alike Spartans for their respective roles, women were deeply respected, perhaps even more than Spartan men, and definitely in comparison to other Greek cities women. A Spartan woman was allowed not only to exercise but to do it naked (like Spartan men would) and sometimes even with men. They were given a public education, (while different to the education men received, it was still aeons ahead of cities like Athens, and even some Roman women weren’t educated to the degree of Spartans). Women were also permitted to eat more than other Hellenic women, drink wine and practice wrestling, gymnastics and horse racing – there was even a woman’s only chariot race. Furthermore, Women were also allowed to converse on equal footing with other men – a radical concept for the time. Spartan women were notoriously known for their sharp wit and outspoken nature, conversations filled with wit. When Gorgo, wife of Leonidas was asked by a woman from Attica, “Why is it that you Spartan women are the only women that lord it over your men?” She responded, “Because we are the only women that are mothers of men.”
The Spartan people were known to practice wit and to show no fear. In fact, many of the greatest quotes that we attribute to the Spartans have come from the field of battle. At Thermopylae, a local pointed out to the Spartans that, when the Persians fired their arrows, there would be enough ‘as to blot out the sun’ (Holland, 2005). A Spartan officer replied ‘What excellent news. If the Mede hides the sun, then so much better for us – we can fight our battle in the shade.’(Herodotus, 2003). Furthermore, when Philip II of Macedon came to invade Greece, he told the Spartans “If I invade Lakonia you will be destroyed, never to rise again.” To the Spartan reply of the single word: “If.”
Corinth.
Corinth had been, for centuries, the dominant Hellenic naval power. Sitting on an Isthmus, which is a geographical term for a small stretch of land that connects two bodies of land that would otherwise be separated by the seas, it was in a perfect position to do so. To further aid this, most inter-Greek naval and trade routes passed through or by Corinth (see Appendix 2, Map 1).
However, in recent decades leading to the Peloponnesian War, Corinth had been in decline. Primarily due to other Greek City states beginning to challenge their supremacy of the waves. Corcyra (an old Corinthian colony that was now independent) and Athens were but to name a few. Corinth essentially saw itself as a natural Spartan ally. It was the only entrance into the Peloponnesus, so the two could protect each other relatively easily.
Warfare.
Hoplites.
A “Hoplite” is the general term used to describe a Greek soldier. With Sparta being the only exception, much like the early Roman Republic, the Greek city-states had no standing army at any one time, they had neither the population nor monetary capabilities to be able to afford such a luxury. Hoplites were citizens of a Greek city-state, most farmers or tradesmen who could afford to buy their own armour and military gear.
Image 2; depicting classic Greek Hoplites, due to the relatively unchanging nature of Ancient Greek warfare, this image could be depicting Greek Hoplites from the 8th-century BCE, all the way to Alexander the Great. However, it is most likely that they are from the Persian –Peloponnesian Wars era. Due to the lack of cloak, it is likely these Hoplites are Athenian.
As shown above, in Image 2, a Greek Hoplite’s armour was the same for almost all Greek City states. Greeks would own a chest plate, made up of a combination of leathers, bronze and wood. Their helmet was usually bronze, with a horsehair plume running along the top – usually, the colour would be different based on the City State. They would also wear sandals with metal cladding armour protecting their legs up to their thighs. A usually bronze and wooden, circular Hoplite shield would also be owned. In terms of weaponry, each Greek would own a sword for close quarters fighting, and an Iron tipped spear.
Naval Warfare and the Trireme.
Naval warfare was largely a new concept to the Greeks, in spite of the fact of it being a region covered in islands. While ships were not unknown to the Greeks, as above stated, the majority of warfare came through pitched battles with the Phalanx. However, by the Greco-Persian Wars, the Greeks, especially the Athenians began to become adept at naval warfare.
Image 3; Ancient Greek Trireme. Its name comes from the three sets of oars that ran down each side. The oars would be pulled by slaves, or by paid workers. Kagan estimates that it would have cost the Athenians around 1 talent (essentially an amount of silver) to keep one ship on the water for one month.
During the Greco-Persian Wars, on the first day of the battle of Artemisium, the Hellenic allies moved their “bows on to the barbarians, [and] they drew their sterns together in the middle”. Thucydides comments that the Spartans, under Lysander, would commit to a similar policy in the dying years of the Peloponnesian War. Historians have debated over whether this meant a perfect circle, or a semi-circle as, unlike with Lysander, who was in charge of around 40-60 ships at the time, the Greeks at Artemisium, had a force of about 250. Thus, it is largely concluded by revisionist historians that they were in a crescent shape. Regardless, this tactic would be followed by ramming the opposing force with the bronze-tipped rams, shown in image 3 after they had been baited into surrounded the force.
The most common fighting of the Triremes, however, would be to line them up in a line, and either ram them against each other in an attempt to sink the other, or to board each other’s ship and commit to hand to hand combat in an attempt to capture the ship. In such a respect, Greek Naval battles can be compared to the traditional pitched battles of the Phalanx.
Image 4; the Trireme formation at the Battle of Salamis, a Greek Victory over the Persians. This image directly shows how the majority of Greek naval battles occurred.
The Trouble for a Spartan Navy.
Image 5; The Peloponnese and Attica, showing the route the Peloponnese, Laconia is the region in which Sparta was situated (Sparta itself being in the middle of this region, near to the ‘L’ in Laconia on the map, showing how hard it would have been for Sparta to become a naval power.
Because of how primitive sailing was in Ancient Greece, sailing far into the sea could spell disaster for a fleet – storms could wipe one off the map. So, most naval fleets preferred to stick along the coastline, following it round to wherever they needed to reach. Thus, a Peloponnesian fleet trying to reach the Aegean was required to pass by Attica. This became problematic in the Peloponnesian Wars (See Appendix 4) during events like the Mytlenean revolt.
Spartan Warfare.
Spartan warfare deserves its own description, because of how differently, in comparisons to City-States like Thebes, Corinth or Athens, they fought. Since the Homeric poem times, Sparta had been the Hegemon, indeed, it is said Menelaus (Who was Helen’s husband before Aphrodite kidnapped her. Recent adaptations of the story depict Menelaus as a horrible husband, and Helen leaving with Paris of Troy voluntarily, for instance in the BBC show; “Troy: The Fall of a City”. However, the original story has it that Aphrodite (Or Paris himself, depending on adaptation) kidnapping Helen, after promising Paris the most beautiful woman in the world as a wife in return for a mythical Golden Apple.) was a Spartan King. Spartan subjugation of the Messenians and the subsequent slave race known as the “Helots” who worked the land and the farms for the Spartans allowed them to focus entirely on warfare. Unlike the other Greek city states, who had citizen soldiers, it is understood that Spartan had almost what is akin to a standing army. Boys would be taken from the age of 8 to an academy, where they would become the ‘perfect’ soldier. It is for this reason why Sparta was the most feared state in the Hellenic World.
Image 5; Spartan commander, it is likely this would be the dress of a Spartan King when going into battle. Normal Hoplite Helmets had the horsehair plumes going down, rather than across the helm.
However, the Spartans were not invincible, Spartans were always apprehensive of war because, if they travelled too far outside the Peloponnesus, not only could it run the risk of an invasion from their old enemy, Argos, but a Helot revolt could occur – which if successful, would be disastrous for the Spartan peoples. Often, many of the reasons why Sparta does not commit to battles is because either it is too far – running the risk of invasion or revolt – or because of their highly religious nature.
Even so, the Spartan peoples were fearsome warriors, unmoved and unchanged. They were the most effective and efficient of all the Greek soldiers. Their red cloaks and long hair could be seen and would be feared. It is claimed by Herodotus, that during Thermopylae, after the Greeks found out they have been betrayed and the Persian Immortals were soon going to rout them from behind, the Spartans, fully aware of this fact merely sat, brushing their long hair or wrestling in the sand. Only two of the 300 Spartans that faced the Persians that day survived, and they had been allowed to retreat with the other soldiers of city states (Such as Corinth) that the 300 were holding the Persians back to help escape. Even in death, Spartans were fearless.
Wars
Fighting in the Ancient Greek world happened under set circumstances that had gone unchanged for millennia. It usually occurred under territorial disputes. A Greek “war” never usually lasted more than one, “pitched” battle. The Greek lines would face each other in what was called a Phalanx. How deep the Phalanx was usually depended on era, but sometimes would be dependent on the City State. During the period in question, most city states made their phalanx 8 deep, however, In Philip II of Macedonia’s conquest, the Macedonian Phalanx’s were made much longer.
Image 6; shows the formation of a Greek Phalanx. The size of a phalanx would change depending on the era, however the 8 deep Phalanx shown above suggests it depicts one from the Persian Wars – Peloponnesian Wars era.
The Hoplites were organised in a very specific fashion on the Phalanx. Because each man’s shield protected half of himself and half of the man to his left, the soldier on the far right would be left unprotected, and thus more viable to being killed. As such, the most capable of a Greeks army would be put on the right, under the impression that they would best be able to hold their ground. This would be broken severely at the Battle of Leuctra in 371, when Theban General Epiminondas put his best fighters on the left of the Phalanx, so that they would face the Spartan elites. He did this because he believed his elite fighters were better than the Spartans, and hoped to perform a rout. This worked perfectly, and ultimately led to the Spartans losing their hegemony over Greece as Thebes freed Messenia from Spartan rule.
A “pitched” battle simply means one that is set up. Each Phalanx would line up against each other, before charging the other. The aim was not to slaughter all of the enemy, but to perform a rout. A rout would occur when one Greek soldier got scared, and ran away. This would almost always cause more Soldiers to run, until the entire army fled the battlefield. Sometimes, the armies would not even try to kill each other, but just push against each other with shields until the other one broke. The winning side would set up a “trophy” of victory, and under traditional circumstances the territory they had been fighting over would become rightfully theirs. In some Greek battles, especially in the Persian and Peloponnesian Wars, a rout would only occur when one of the winged Phalanxes defeated the other, and charged the side of the opposing Phalanxes centre.
Image 7; The formation of Athenian and Spartan forces at Mantinea (A Battle In the Peloponnesian Wars). Here shows the Spartan army split into three Phalanx formations. In this battle, the Right Spartan Phalanx routed the Left (Spartan Right) Athenian/ Argive Phalanx.
The Leagues.
Peloponnesian League.
As before stated, the Peloponnesian League was created in the 6th century following the Spartan invasion of the rest of Lacedaemon (The region of the Peloponnesus that Sparta was in) and Messenia. Over the following centuries, Sparta would eventually subjugate the rest of the Peloponnesian peninsula (Again, as stated, Argos was not subjugated by Sparta.). Following the Persian Wars, Corinth, Megara and would become part of the league, and following the first Peloponnesian Wars, Thebes and Boeotia would join too (While Macedonia was not part of the league, it was Sparta’s ally at the time and thus is shaded in the same colours as the League.). The League was essentially just a mutual defence pact. They would often have assemblies, where representatives of all the allies would meet, but usually only at Sparta’s request.
See Appendix 2, Map to see the regions of Greece in the League during the Second Peloponnesian War.
Delian League.
The Delian League was formed in 478, one year after the end of the liberation of Byzantium, and end of the Persian Wars. The League originally was formed by “The Athenians and her allies” as a mutual defence pact against Persia. During the 470s and 460s, the Athenian peoples became obsessed by “the barbarian” and the threat it held. It would ultimately lead to Cimon’s expedition deep into Persia in the 470s. The League is called “The Delian League” because originally it was formed on Delos. This is because the League was primarily made up of Islands and the surrounding land (Thessaly, Hellespont, etc) in the Aegean, most of whom had just won back freedom from Persia. It both formed and named after Delos to show, at least in the beginning, that this was not an Athenian Empire like the Peloponnesian League essentially was. Each state gave “tribute” – either in the form of ships or money (to build ships) to Delos. As demonstrated in the essay, the Athenians would eventually move the tribute treasury to Athens itself.
See Appendix 2 to see the islands and regions part of the Delian league during the Second Peloponnesian War.
The History Book 